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The Ancient World Behind the Text: Ideas

The customs, offices and ideas a first reader knew without being told, what each meant then, and the nearest thing you already know.

Orators, rhetoric and boasting

Public speaking was the great skill of the Greek city. Traveling orators performed for crowds and gathered paying students, audiences judged them on voice and gesture as well as argument, and the fans of rival speakers boasted of their own man against the rest.

Greek and Roman worldCity, trade and civic life

First, in plain English

The visiting preacher packed the hall, and afterward everyone argued over whether he was better than last year's. In Paul's world fine public speaking was what educated people admired most. Orators traveled from city to city, gave a showcase speech, and if the crowd liked them settled down and took paying students. Audiences judged a speaker's voice, gestures and style as closely as his argument, and the fans of rival speakers sometimes came to blows. Speakers also had accepted ways of praising themselves, and lists of the hardships they had endured to show they were genuine.

What it meant then

Corinthian culture prized speech and even competed in it, and the nearby Isthmian Games included speech contests. An orator arriving in a city gave a scheduled oration and, if it won him students, settled there. "Urban hearers in places such as Corinth regularly judged and ranked speakers" (the cultural backgrounds notes). Bailey quotes Dio Chrysostom on the scene at the games: "Crowds of wretched sophists around Poseidon's temple shouting and reviling one another." Greeks expected a forceful tone, the right accent and gestures, even the right clothes and grooming. Even famous orators played down their ability before speaking brilliantly. Philosophers had attacked rhetoric since Socrates for valuing skill over truth. Speakers and philosophers alike were accused of selling the truth for gain, like merchants watering their goods. Self-praise had rules. Rhetoricians such as Quintilian and moralists such as Plutarch allowed it only under necessity, in self-defense or for the hearers' good. Plutarch wrote a whole essay on praising oneself inoffensively. Boasting of one's friends was always acceptable, and comparison with rivals was a standard technique. Sages listed the hardships they had endured, sometimes in triads, to prove their integrity. They meant the list to show their strength, not their weakness. Roman officials displayed their careers, the cursus honorum. Wright notes that the first soldier over an enemy wall could claim the wall crown, the corona muralis, on oath. He reads 2 Corinthians 11 as "an upside-down boasting list, a cursus pudorum." Speeches of praise loved parallelism and repetition. The florid style valued in Asia Minor, piling up synonyms, was well known and controversial among Roman orators.

The bridge to today

An analogy: a celebrity speaker on tour. People come for the performance, rate the delivery, and attach themselves to the speaker they like best against his rivals.

What it changes in the reading

Because audiences ranked speakers and attached themselves to favorites, slogans such as I belong to Apollos in 1 Corinthians 1:12 sound like the fans of rival orators. Apollos is introduced as an eloquent man in Acts 18:24, and Paul's critics in 2 Corinthians 10:10 say his letters are weighty but his speaking contemptible.

Where the analogy breaks

Not a speaker who comes and goes. A successful orator settled in the city and lived on the fees of the students he won. Speech was also judged in formal contests, as at the Isthmian Games, and philosophers attacked the whole trade for valuing skill over truth.

Where scholars disagree

How far Greek rhetoric explains Corinth. Carson reports a dispute over reading 1 and 2 Corinthians against an early Sophist movement in the city, with Bruce Winter arguing for it and Jerome Murphy-O'Connor his most articulate critic. Bailey traces Paul's patterns of composition to the Hebrew prophets and says they are not directly related to classical Greek rhetoric. Keener and his notes find many rhetorical devices in Paul's writing and think his weakness lay in delivery, while Wright thinks Paul writes polished rhetoric in 1 Corinthians 1:18-25 on purpose, teasing his readers.

Passages where it appears

{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-1-1-9\/","n":"1 Corinthians 1:1-9, Grace to the church in Corinth","s":"Paul and Sosthenes greet the church of God in Corinth and thank God that its members have been made rich in every kind of speech and knowledge as they wait for the Lord to be revealed.","r":"1 Corinthians 1:1-9"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-1-10-17\/","n":"1 Corinthians 1:10-17, I belong to Paul, I belong to Apollos","s":"Told by Chloe's people that the church is splitting into camps behind Paul, Apollos, Cephas and Christ, Paul appeals for unity and asks whether Christ has been divided.","r":"1 Corinthians 1:10-17"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-1-18-2-5\/","n":"1 Corinthians 1:18-2:5, The foolishness of the cross","s":"Paul sets the message of a crucified Messiah, folly to Greeks and a stumbling block to Jews, against the wisdom and eloquence Corinth admired, and reminds the believers that few of them were wise, powerful or well born.","r":"1 Corinthians 1:18-2:5"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-4-6-13\/","n":"1 Corinthians 4:6-13, Apostles on display","s":"With biting irony Paul sets the Corinthians, already full, rich and reigning, beside the apostles, put on show last of all like men condemned to die, hungry, ragged, homeless and treated as the world's scum.","r":"1 Corinthians 4:6-13"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-13-1-13\/","n":"1 Corinthians 13:1-13, Noisy bronze and a dim mirror","s":"Paul says that tongues, prophecy, knowledge, faith and even martyrdom are nothing without love, describes what love is, and sets today's partial knowledge, like a dim reflection in a mirror, against seeing face to face.","r":"1 Corinthians 13:1-13"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-2-14-17\/","n":"2 Corinthians 2:14-17, Led in God's triumph","s":"Paul thanks God, who leads him in triumphal procession and spreads the fragrance of Christ through him, a smell of death to some and of life to others, and denies that he peddles God's word for profit.","r":"2 Corinthians 2:14-17"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-3-1-18\/","n":"2 Corinthians 3:1-18, Letters of recommendation and Moses' veil","s":"Paul needs no letters of recommendation, since the Corinthians are his letter, written by the Spirit on hearts; he sets the fading glory on Moses' veiled face against the greater glory of the new covenant.","r":"2 Corinthians 3:1-18"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-4-1-6\/","n":"2 Corinthians 4:1-6, The god of this age","s":"Paul renounces cunning and tampering with God's word; if his gospel is veiled, it is veiled to the perishing, whose minds the god of this age has blinded, while God has made his light shine in believers' hearts.","r":"2 Corinthians 4:1-6"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-4-7-18\/","n":"2 Corinthians 4:7-18, Treasure in clay jars","s":"Paul carries God's treasure in a clay jar, hard pressed but not crushed, carrying Jesus' dying in his body so that Jesus' life may show, while the outer self wastes away and the inner self is renewed day by day.","r":"2 Corinthians 4:7-18"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-5-11-6-13\/","n":"2 Corinthians 5:11-6:13, New creation, Christ's ambassadors and a list of hardships","s":"Because one died for all, anyone in Christ is a new creation; Paul, God's ambassador, appeals to the Corinthians to be reconciled to God and commends his ministry with a long list of hardships and paradoxes.","r":"2 Corinthians 5:11-6:13"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-10-1-18\/","n":"2 Corinthians 10:1-18, Weighty letters, a weak presence and the siege of the mind","s":"Answering the charge that he is bold in letters but weak in person, Paul describes a war that takes every thought captive and refuses to compare himself with rivals who measure themselves by themselves.","r":"2 Corinthians 10:1-18"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-11-1-15\/","n":"2 Corinthians 11:1-15, The betrothed virgin, the free gospel and the angel of light","s":"Jealous as a father who has promised his daughter to one husband, Paul fears the Corinthians will be led astray as Eve was; he defends preaching to them free of charge and calls his rivals false apostles disguised as Satan disguises himself as an angel of light.","r":"2 Corinthians 11:1-15"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-11-16-33\/","n":"2 Corinthians 11:16-33, The fool's boast and the basket over the wall","s":"Forced to boast like a fool, Paul matches his rivals' Jewish credentials and then lists sufferings instead of achievements: lashes, rods, stoning, shipwreck, the dangers of the road, hunger and cold, and a night escape down the wall of Damascus.","r":"2 Corinthians 11:16-33"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-12-1-10\/","n":"2 Corinthians 12:1-10, Caught up to the third heaven; the thorn","s":"Paul tells of a man caught up to the third heaven and into paradise who heard things no one may utter, then of the thorn in the flesh, a messenger of Satan, which God would not remove because his power is made perfect in weakness.","r":"2 Corinthians 12:1-10"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-12-19-13-14\/","n":"2 Corinthians 12:19-13:14, Two or three witnesses","s":"Paul warns that on his third visit every charge will be established by two or three witnesses and that he will not spare the unrepentant, then closes with a call to restoration, the holy kiss and a threefold blessing.","r":"2 Corinthians 12:19-13:14"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-1-1-14\/","n":"Ephesians 1:1-14, A circular letter opens with praise, a seal and a down payment","s":"Paul greets God's holy people and launches one long blessing of God for choosing, adopting, redeeming and sealing a mixed people, with the Spirit as the down payment of their inheritance.","r":"Ephesians 1:1-14"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-4-1-16\/","n":"Ephesians 4:1-16, The conqueror goes up and gives gifts","s":"Paul urges unity, one body and one Spirit, then reads Psalm 68 as Christ ascending in victory and handing out gifts: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers, to equip the church to grow up into him.","r":"Ephesians 4:1-16"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-6-18-24\/","n":"Ephesians 6:18-24, An ambassador in chains, and the man who carried the letter","s":"Paul asks for prayer that he may speak boldly, calling himself an ambassador in chains, and sends Tychicus to carry the letter and tell them his news.","r":"Ephesians 6:18-24"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/philippians-3-1-11\/","n":"Philippians 3:1-11, Dogs, mutilators, and a pedigree counted as loss","s":"Paul warns against teachers who press circumcision, calling them dogs and mutilators, lists his own credentials as a born Jew, a Pharisee and a zealous persecutor, and counts them all loss for the sake of knowing Christ.","r":"Philippians 3:1-11"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1timothy-6-1-10\/","n":"1 Timothy 6:1-10, Slaves under the yoke, and godliness as gain","s":"Slaves are to respect their masters so that the faith is not slandered, and those with believing masters are to serve them all the more; then Paul turns on teachers who treat godliness as a way to get rich, and warns that the craving for money breeds every kind of harm.","r":"1 Timothy 6:1-10"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2timothy-2-14-26\/","n":"2 Timothy 2:14-26, Gangrene, a resurrection already past, and vessels in a great house","s":"Timothy is to warn the church against quarreling about words and to handle the word of truth correctly; the teaching of Hymenaeus and Philetus, who say the resurrection has already happened, spreads like gangrene, but God's foundation stands sealed, and in a great house some vessels are for honor and some for dishonor.","r":"2 Timothy 2:14-26"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2timothy-4-1-8\/","n":"2 Timothy 4:1-8, Itching ears, a drink offering, and the crown","s":"Paul charges Timothy before God and Christ Jesus to preach the word in season and out of season, because people will gather teachers to suit their itching ears; he himself is already being poured out like a drink offering, has fought the good fight and finished the race, and awaits the crown.","r":"2 Timothy 4:1-8"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/3john-1-8\/","n":"3 John 1-8, Gaius and the traveling brothers","s":"The elder writes to his dear friend Gaius, praying that he is in good health and glad to hear that he walks in the truth. Gaius has been faithful in what he does for the brothers, strangers though they are; he should supply them for the next stage of their journey in a way that honors God, since they went out for the sake of the Name and took nothing from the pagans.","r":"3 John 1-8"}

Sources

NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on 1 Corinthians 1:5, 1:12, 1:20, 2:1, 2:3, 2:5 and 4:11-13
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on 1 Corinthians 1:5, introduction to 2:1-5, and on 2:1-2 and 15:9-11
ESV Study Bible, Introduction to 1 Corinthians, Purpose, Occasion, and Background
Kenneth E. Bailey, Paul Through Mediterranean Eyes, Introduction, and section 1.2
N. T. Wright, Paul for Everyone: 1 Corinthians, comments on 1 Corinthians 1:10-17 and 1:18-25
D. A. Carson, A Quick Introduction to the New Testament, Approaches Based on the Selection of Background Materials, and note 103
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on 2 Corinthians 2:17, 4:1-2, 6:4-5, 7:14, 10:9-10, 10:12, introduction to 11:22-33, and on 11:5-6 and 11:16-18
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on 2 Corinthians 2:17, 4:8-12, 7:14, 10:10, 10:12, 11:6 and 12:1
N. T. Wright, Paul: A Biography, ch. 12, Corinth II
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, introduction to Ephesians, Genre
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on Ephesians 1:8 and 1:19
N. T. Wright, Paul: A Biography, ch. 11, Ephesus II

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