Tool Beta

The Ancient World Behind the Text: Ideas

The customs, offices and ideas a first reader knew without being told, what each meant then, and the nearest thing you already know.

Slavery and slave managers

Slaves were everywhere in the Roman world, from field hands to stewards who ran whole estates and handled their master's money. A master away and slaves left in charge was a familiar story.

Greek and Roman worldFamily, marriage and honor

First, in plain English

The owner was abroad for a year, and the manager had the keys, the accounts and the staff. Slavery was part of ordinary life in Jesus' world. Many slaves did hard labor, but a wealthy household might put a trusted slave over the other slaves, the stores and even the money. Such a slave could live better than a free peasant, and could still be beaten or sold when the master came home.

What it meant then

A well-to-do estate owner usually put one steward over his other slaves (Blomberg). Absentee owners were common. While the master was away, such a manager controlled the rations and could abuse his power, and stories used the master's long journey as the test. Roman law let slaves run estates, hold money and earn bonuses. Some imperial freedmen had more power than many aristocrats, and upper-level slaves could live better than most free peasants. Some laws treated slaves as persons, others as property, and masters could beat them. Keener puts the price of an average slave at five hundred to two thousand days' wages. Turning the roles of master and slave upside down was radical anywhere in antiquity. Redemption meant freeing a slave, usually for a price. Slaves could receive wages, the peculium, and sometimes buy their freedom with them. Wright and Bird estimate that slaves made up as much as 30 per cent of some cities. Keener estimates that perhaps 80 percent of Rome's people descended from freed slaves from the East. Wright adds that a story about a master and his slaves would almost certainly be heard as a story about God and Israel. Roman law made anyone sheltering a runaway slave return him. The law of Moses forbade handing an escaped slave back (Deuteronomy 23:15-16). A recaptured runaway faced severe punishment. Slavery was ancient. Around 2100 BC in the kingdom of Ur, Podany shows, people became slaves through debt, sale by poor parents or capture in war. Debt slaves went free when the debt was paid, but bought slaves had no legal way out. Ur-Namma's laws set a reward for returning a runaway.

The bridge to today

An analogy: a hired estate manager with power of attorney while the owner travels. He signs for everything, and the owner can come home without warning and audit the books.

What it changes in the reading

A master who goes away and leaves a slave in charge was a stock story, so a parable like Matthew 24:45-51 asks what the slave does when no one is watching. Because slaves stood at the bottom of the ladder of honor, a call for leaders to be the slave of all, as in Mark 10:44, overturned rank. Paul calls himself a slave of Christ Jesus in Romans 1:1.

Where the analogy breaks

Not a free employee who can resign. A hired manager signs a contract and can walk away. The ancient steward was usually a slave himself, owned by his master, open to beating or sale, and free only if he was released or bought his way out.

Where scholars disagree

Two questions. First, what Paul's household rules imply about slavery itself. Keener says no one in Paul's day proposed abolition, which not even a revolt could have won, but that telling masters to treat slaves the same way (Ephesians 6:9) points toward it. Wright and Bird stress that slavery's existence was never debated in antiquity. The cultural backgrounds article adds that freed slaves often bought slaves of their own. The ESV Study Bible says Paul does not condone the system and that it slowly died out through Christian influence; the CSB Study Bible says his words later helped inspire the anti-slavery movement. Second, how far Philemon challenges slavery. Keener says it goes beyond other documents of its time in asking for a slave's release because he is now a Christian. The CSB Study Bible says Paul accepts slavery as a legal fact without endorsing it, and so undermines it. Wright writes, "As a policy statement about slavery, the letter falls short", though he calls it brilliant as a one-off pastoral strategy. Carson, Moo and Morris say calling Onesimus a brother "makes slavery meaningless", though Paul asks only for a kind welcome.

Passages where it appears

{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/matthew-18-21-35\/","n":"Matthew 18:21-35, Ten thousand talents and a hundred denarii","s":"Peter asks whether forgiving seven times is enough. Jesus tells of a king who cancels an impossible debt, and of the forgiven servant who then chokes a colleague over a small one.","r":"Matthew 18:21-35"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/matthew-24-29-51\/","n":"Matthew 24:29-51, The Son of Man on the clouds and the slave in charge","s":"After the distress, sun, moon and stars fail and the Son of Man comes on the clouds to gather his chosen. No one knows the day, so the household must stay ready, like a slave left in charge.","r":"Matthew 24:29-51"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/matthew-25-14-30\/","n":"Matthew 25:14-30, Five, two and one talent","s":"A man going abroad entrusts his property to three slaves. Two double what they were given and are rewarded; the third buries his talent and is thrown out.","r":"Matthew 25:14-30"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/luke-7-1-10\/","n":"Luke 7:1-10, A centurion who built the synagogue","s":"Jewish elders in Capernaum plead for a centurion whose valued slave is dying, because he loves their nation and built their synagogue. The centurion sends word that Jesus need not come under his roof, only give the order.","r":"Luke 7:1-10"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/luke-12-35-48\/","n":"Luke 12:35-48, Slaves waiting up for the master","s":"Jesus tells his followers to be dressed for action with lamps lit, like slaves waiting for their master to come home from a wedding, and asks what a slave left in charge will do if the master is delayed.","r":"Luke 12:35-48"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/luke-19-11-27\/","n":"Luke 19:11-27, The nobleman who went to receive a kingdom","s":"Because people think the kingdom is about to appear, Jesus tells of a nobleman who travels to a far country to be made king while citizens who hate him send a delegation after him, and of the servants who trade with his money.","r":"Luke 19:11-27"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/luke-22-24-38\/","n":"Luke 22:24-38, Benefactors, thrones, sifting and two swords","s":"At the last supper the disciples argue over who is greatest. Jesus contrasts kings who are called benefactors with himself as one who serves, promises them thrones, warns Peter that Satan has asked to sift them, and speaks of swords.","r":"Luke 22:24-38"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/romans-1-1-7\/","n":"Romans 1:1-7, A slave of the Messiah writes to Rome","s":"Paul opens with his name and titles, a short summary of the good news about God's Son, and a greeting of grace and peace to believers in Rome he has never met.","r":"Romans 1:1-7"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/romans-3-21-31\/","n":"Romans 3:21-31, Redemption and the mercy seat","s":"Paul announces that God's righteousness has been revealed through faith in Jesus for all who believe, Jew and Gentile alike, through a redemption and an atoning death he links to the mercy seat.","r":"Romans 3:21-31"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/romans-6-1-23\/","n":"Romans 6:1-23, Slaves of a new master","s":"Baptized into Christ's death, believers are dead to sin. Once slaves of sin, they have been set free to become slaves of God, whose gift is eternal life.","r":"Romans 6:1-23"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/romans-8-12-17\/","n":"Romans 8:12-17, Not slaves but adopted heirs","s":"Those led by God's Spirit are God's children. They have received the Spirit of adoption, not of slavery, and cry Abba, Father, as heirs of God with Christ.","r":"Romans 8:12-17"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/romans-16-3-16\/","n":"Romans 16:3-16, Greet the church in their house","s":"Paul greets more than two dozen believers in Rome by name, from Prisca and Aquila and the church in their house to the households of Aristobulus and Narcissus, and tells them to greet one another with a holy kiss.","r":"Romans 16:3-16"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-6-12-20\/","n":"1 Corinthians 6:12-20, The body and the prostitute","s":"Answering slogans such as everything is permissible and food is for the stomach, Paul argues that the body belongs to the Lord, will be raised, and must not be joined to a prostitute, for believers were bought at a price.","r":"1 Corinthians 6:12-20"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-7-17-24\/","n":"1 Corinthians 7:17-24, Circumcised or not, slave or free","s":"Paul tells each believer to live the life the Lord assigned when he was called: the circumcised should not undo it, the uncircumcised should not seek it, and a slave should not be troubled, though he should take his freedom if he can.","r":"1 Corinthians 7:17-24"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-9-1-27\/","n":"1 Corinthians 9:1-27, Free, unpaid and in training","s":"Paul defends his right as an apostle to be supported and explains why he has never used it, makes himself a slave to all to win more, and pictures his discipline as an athlete's training for a wreath that will not wither.","r":"1 Corinthians 9:1-27"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-12-1-31\/","n":"1 Corinthians 12:1-31, Mute idols and one body","s":"Paul reminds the Corinthians that as pagans they were led astray to mute idols, describes the many gifts of the one Spirit, and pictures the church as one body whose weaker and less honored members are indispensable.","r":"1 Corinthians 12:1-31"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/galatians-3-23-29\/","n":"Galatians 3:23-29, The law as a guardian until faith came","s":"Before faith came, Paul says, we were held in custody under the law, which served as a guardian until Christ; now all who have been baptized into Christ are God's children, one in him, Abraham's seed and heirs.","r":"Galatians 3:23-29"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/galatians-4-1-11\/","n":"Galatians 4:1-11, Heirs, slaves and the elements of the world","s":"An heir who is still a child is no better off than a slave, Paul says; so we were enslaved under the elements of the world until God sent his Son to redeem us and his Spirit to cry Abba, and he asks why the Galatians want to go back to observing special days, months, seasons and years.","r":"Galatians 4:1-11"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/galatians-4-21-5-1\/","n":"Galatians 4:21-5:1, Hagar, Sarah and Sinai in Arabia","s":"Paul reads the story of Abraham's two sons as a figure of two covenants: Hagar the slave stands for Sinai and the present Jerusalem, Sarah the free woman for the Jerusalem above, and he calls the Galatians to stand firm in freedom.","r":"Galatians 4:21-5:1"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/galatians-5-13-6-10\/","n":"Galatians 5:13-6:10, Flesh and Spirit, burdens and teachers","s":"Called to freedom, the Galatians are to serve one another in love, which fulfills the law; Paul sets the works of the flesh against the fruit of the Spirit and urges them to restore the fallen gently, carry each other's burdens, share with their teachers and keep doing good.","r":"Galatians 5:13-6:10"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-6-1-9\/","n":"Ephesians 6:1-9, Children, fathers, slaves and masters","s":"The household code goes on to children and fathers, then to slaves and masters, asking something of each side and reminding masters that they and their slaves have the same Master in heaven.","r":"Ephesians 6:1-9"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/philippians-2-1-11\/","n":"Philippians 2:1-11, The form of a slave, a cross, and every knee","s":"Paul urges humility and concern for others, then sets out Christ, who did not exploit his equality with God but took the form of a slave and died on a cross, and whom God exalted so that every knee will bow.","r":"Philippians 2:1-11"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/colossians-1-1-14\/","n":"Colossians 1:1-14, Epaphras's report and a change of kingdoms","s":"Paul and Timothy greet the believers at Colossae, a church Paul has never visited, thank God for what Epaphras has told them, and pray that they grow in knowledge, having been rescued out of darkness into the kingdom of God's Son.","r":"Colossians 1:1-14"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/colossians-1-24-2-5\/","n":"Colossians 1:24-2:5, Sufferings for the body, and a steward of the mystery","s":"Paul rejoices to suffer for the church, fills up what is lacking in Christ's afflictions, calls himself the servant entrusted with God's long hidden mystery, and tells churches he has never met how hard he struggles for them.","r":"Colossians 1:24-2:5"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/colossians-3-1-17\/","n":"Colossians 3:1-17, Things above, and no Greek, Jew, barbarian or Scythian","s":"Raised with Christ, the believers are to set their minds on things above, put to death the old ways, take off the old self and put on the new, in which there is no Greek or Jew, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, and above all put on love.","r":"Colossians 3:1-17"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/colossians-3-18-4-1\/","n":"Colossians 3:18-4:1, The household code","s":"Paul addresses wives and husbands, children and fathers, slaves and masters in the form of an ancient household code, tells husbands to love and fathers not to embitter, and reminds masters that they too have a Master in heaven.","r":"Colossians 3:18-4:1"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/colossians-4-7-18\/","n":"Colossians 4:7-18, Tychicus, Onesimus, Nympha's house and the letter from Laodicea","s":"Paul sends the letter with Tychicus and Onesimus, passes on greetings from Jewish and Gentile co-workers, greets Nympha and the church in her house, asks for this letter to be read at Laodicea and the Laodicean letter at Colossae, and signs off in his own hand.","r":"Colossians 4:7-18"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1timothy-1-1-11\/","n":"1 Timothy 1:1-11, Myths, endless genealogies and would-be teachers of the law","s":"Paul greets Timothy, whom he left in Ephesus, and tells him to stop certain people teaching strange doctrines and spending themselves on myths and endless genealogies; they want to be teachers of the law without understanding it, while the law is meant for the lawless.","r":"1 Timothy 1:1-11"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1timothy-6-1-10\/","n":"1 Timothy 6:1-10, Slaves under the yoke, and godliness as gain","s":"Slaves are to respect their masters so that the faith is not slandered, and those with believing masters are to serve them all the more; then Paul turns on teachers who treat godliness as a way to get rich, and warns that the craving for money breeds every kind of harm.","r":"1 Timothy 6:1-10"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/titus-2-1-10\/","n":"Titus 2:1-10, Older men, older women, young wives and slaves","s":"Titus is to teach what fits sound doctrine to each group in the household of faith, older men, older women, younger women, younger men and slaves, so that outsiders have no cause to speak against God's message and the teaching about God is made attractive.","r":"Titus 2:1-10"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/philemon-8-25\/","n":"Philemon 8-25, Onesimus sent home with a letter","s":"Paul appeals to Philemon, on the basis of love, for Onesimus, the slave who became Paul's son in prison: he sends him back to be received as a beloved brother rather than as a slave, asks Philemon to welcome him as he would Paul, offers to repay anything he owes, and asks for a guest room.","r":"Philemon 8-25"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1peter-2-18-25\/","n":"1 Peter 2:18-25, Household slaves and a harsh master","s":"Peter tells household slaves to submit to their masters, the harsh as well as the kind, because suffering unjustly while doing good is commendable before God. Christ suffered for them, leaving an example: insulted, he did not insult in return, and by his wounds they have been healed.","r":"1 Peter 2:18-25"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2peter-2-10-22\/","n":"2 Peter 2:10-22, The glorious ones, the way of Balaam, a dog and a sow","s":"The false teachers slander the glorious ones, which even angels do not dare to do. Like unreasoning animals they carouse in daylight, with eyes full of adultery; they have followed Balaam, who loved profit gained by wrongdoing and was rebuked by a donkey. They promise freedom while slaves of corruption, and they are like a dog returning to its vomit and a washed sow to the mud.","r":"2 Peter 2:10-22"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/revelation-18-9-24\/","n":"Revelation 18:9-24, kings, merchants and the cargo list","s":"The kings, the merchants and the sea captains stand far off and mourn as Babylon burns, because no one buys their cargoes any more, a long list of luxuries that ends with human beings. An angel hurls a great millstone into the sea, and the sounds of music, craftsmen, the mill, the lamp and the wedding fall silent in the city where the blood of prophets and saints was found.","r":"Revelation 18:9-24"}

Sources

Craig L. Blomberg, Interpreting the Parables, 6.5 Faithful and Unfaithful Servants
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on Matthew 18:23, 18:25, 20:26-27, 22:6, 24:45-51, 25:14-30 and 26:14-16
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on Matthew 24:45, 24:48, 25:14, 25:21 and 26:15
ESV Study Bible, study note on Matthew 20:26-27
N. T. Wright, Matthew for Everyone, Part Two, comment on Matthew 24:45-51
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on Romans 1:1, 3:24, 6:23 and 16:3-16
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on Romans 3:24 and 6:23
N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, The New Testament in Its World, ch. 7, The Greco-Roman Context of the Early Church
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, introduction to Ephesians 6:5-9
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on Ephesians 6:7 and 6:9
ESV Study Bible, study note on Ephesians 6:5
CSB Study Bible, note on Ephesians 6:5-9
N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, The New Testament in Its World, ch. 20, Colossians, Philemon, and Ephesians, box Paul and Slavery
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, introduction to Philemon, Slavery and the Setting of Philemon
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, Introduction to Philemon, Situation
ESV Study Bible, Introduction to Philemon, Purpose, Occasion, and Background
CSB Study Bible, Introduction to Philemon, Contribution to the Bible
N. T. Wright, Paul: A Biography, ch. 11, Ephesus II
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, articles Slaves and Slaveholders in Ephesians 6, and Ancient Slavery and the Background for Philemon
N. T. Wright, Paul for Everyone: The Prison Letters, comment on Philemon 15-25
D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo and Leon Morris, An Introduction to the New Testament, ch. 16, Philemon, Occasion and The Contribution of Philemon
Amanda H. Podany, Weavers, Scribes, and Kings: A New History of the Ancient Near East, ch. 7, Waifs, Prisoners, and Lu-Nanna, an Escaped Slave

All ideas