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The Ancient World Behind the Text: Ideas
The customs, offices and ideas a first reader knew without being told, what each meant then, and the nearest thing you already know.
Roman soldiers and their gear
The legionary was the most familiar picture of armed strength in the provinces: helmet, breastplate, boots, a big shield and a short sword, fighting shoulder to shoulder. Legions that held their ranks were thought almost unbeatable.
Anyone who has watched riot police lock their shields together knows what a line of trained men can do. Most people in the Roman provinces had seen soldiers. A legionary wore a helmet and a breastplate of leather and metal, sturdy half boots and a belt or apron, and he carried a large shield and a short sword for close fighting. The armor covered only the front, because soldiers fought facing forward, side by side. As long as the ranks held, a legion was very hard to beat.
Paul borrows the Old Testament picture of God as a warrior in armor (Isaiah 59:17; Wisdom of Solomon 5:17-20). Keener writes that most of his hearers had seen Roman soldiers, though, and would picture one ready for battle. The belt may be the leather apron under the armor or the metal belt over the lower belly. The breastplate was usually leather covered with metal. Like the bronze or iron helmet with its cheek pieces, it was worn only for battle. Soldiers wore the caliga, a half boot, so they could advance without worrying about what lay underfoot. The large rectangular wooden shield stood about four feet high. It was faced with leather that was soaked before a battle against flaming arrows. When the front rank held shields forward and those behind held theirs overhead, legionaries were nearly proof against such arrows. The gladius, 20 to 24 inches long, was for close combat once the lances had been thrown. Soldiers often carried two pila, driving the first into an enemy's shield to make it unwieldy. Generals urged their men to stand, counting retreat and wounds in the back as shameful. Legions that held ranks on open ground were considered almost invincible. Josephus writes that "The footmen are armed with breastplates and head-pieces, and have swords on each side". Generals addressed their troops before battle. Philosophers spoke of their fight against wicked ideas and for the truth as wrestling or war. Soldiers served about twenty years and could not marry while serving, though some kept concubines. About half lived to retire.
An analogy: a firefighter's protective gear, each piece made for one danger, worn only when the alarm sounds and little use to a crew member who wanders off alone.
Because the legionary was the most familiar picture of armed strength, the armor of God in Ephesians 6:10-17 would bring a Roman soldier to mind alongside Isaiah's warrior God. 1 Thessalonians 5:8 gives a shorter version, the breastplate of faith and love and the helmet of the hope of salvation.
Not purely protective gear. A firefighter's kit only shields its wearer. The Roman soldier also carried the gladius for close combat and stood in ranks against a living enemy; in Paul's picture that enemy is spiritual and the one weapon is God's word.
Which picture comes first. Keener and the cultural backgrounds notes say that although the language comes from Isaiah, most hearers would first picture a Roman soldier. The ESV Study Bible says the description draws mainly on Old Testament allusions, though "the terms used also overlap well with Roman weaponry", especially the tall, door-like shield and the short sword for stabbing. Arnold and Wright also put Isaiah first (11:5; 52:7; 59:17), Arnold calling it unimportant which soldier Paul had in mind; the Zondervan dictionary thinks the picture drawn from Paul's contact with his Roman guards.
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- Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, introduction to Ephesians 6:10-20, and on Ephesians 6:10-11, 6:12, 6:14, 6:15, 6:16, 6:17 and 6:18-19
- NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on Ephesians 6:10-20, 6:11, 6:14, 6:15, 6:16 and 6:17
- ESV Study Bible, study note on Ephesians 6:11
- Josephus, The Wars of the Jews 3.5.5, trans. William Whiston
- Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on 1 Timothy 1:18
- NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, note on 1 Timothy 1:18
- Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on 2 Timothy 2:3-4
- NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, note on 2 Timothy 2:4
- Clinton E. Arnold, Powers of Darkness, ch. 11, Spiritual Warfare, The Christian Life As Warfare
- N. T. Wright, Paul for Everyone: The Prison Letters, comment on Ephesians 6:10-17
- J. D. Douglas and Merrill C. Tenney, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary, entry arms and armor
