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The Ancient World Behind the Text: Ideas

The customs, offices and ideas a first reader knew without being told, what each meant then, and the nearest thing you already know.

Rulers and powers over the nations

Many Jews believed each nation had a spiritual ruler set over it, often hostile to God's people. Paul's rulers, authorities, powers and thrones belong to that picture.

Jewish life and lawWhat people were waiting for

First, in plain English

The map showed each country under its own flag, but the real question was who stood behind each flag. The book of Daniel speaks of a prince of Persia and a prince of Greece, heavenly rulers who fought against the angel sent to Daniel. From texts like these many Jews believed that each nation had a heavenly ruler over it, and that these rulers were often hostile to Israel. Many people also believed the stars and Fate ruled their lives. When Paul lists rulers, authorities and powers, he is using words that carried that meaning.

What it meant then

The cultural backgrounds notes take the rulers and powers of Romans 8:38 as the guardian angels thought to rule the nations, often hostile to God's people. The idea appears as early as Daniel 10:13 and 20-21 and in the Greek version of Deuteronomy 32:8. Keener writes that "Many ancient Jewish writers used these terms in this way," for the spiritual forces ruling the nations and opposing God's people. Heiser lists Paul's vocabulary: rulers, principalities, authorities, powers, lords, thrones and world rulers. He argues that these words were used for authority over geographical domains, the worldview of Deuteronomy 32:8-9. Sometimes they mean human rulers, but in places Paul plainly means spiritual beings. The Greek translations of Daniel 10 call Michael and the prince of Persia by the word archon, the word Paul uses for the rulers of this age. Arnold notes that Paul's terms all appear in Jewish writings of the period, such as 1 Enoch 61:10. He adds that later tradition made the rulers of the other nations deceivers: Jubilees 15:31 says God set spirits over them to lead them astray. Almost everyone believed the heavens had several levels, with different spiritual beings in each and God in the highest. So heavenly realms could mean where God is or where the powers live. The air was thought the lowest heaven, inhabited by spirits. Keener reads the rulers of Ephesians 3:10 as the angels of the nations, shown God's wisdom in a church drawn from many peoples. Heiser reads the mission to the Gentiles as the reclaiming of nations disinherited at Babel and left under lesser gods.

The bridge to today

An analogy: an empire whose provinces are run by governors, some of whom have gone rogue and rule for themselves. When the rightful king comes back, every governor's claim is in question.

What it changes in the reading

Because rulers and powers named alongside angels meant the spiritual rulers of the nations, Paul's promise in Romans 8:38 that none of them can separate believers from God's love answers a real fear. Ephesians 6:12 sets the believer's struggle against the same rulers and authorities, and Colossians 2:15 says they were disarmed at the cross.

Where the analogy breaks

Not a map of provinces with named governors. An empire knows which governor holds which province. Paul never names or ranks these powers or ties them to a country, and the sources disagree on how far his terms mean spirits, human rulers or both.

Where scholars disagree

How specific the terms are. Heiser, Keener and the cultural backgrounds notes read spiritual rulers over the nations, in the line of Daniel 10 and Deuteronomy 32. The ESV Study Bible says only angelic and demonic authorities. Arnold notes: "Paul himself never connected the powers of darkness with any specific country or territory." Second, how the rulers of Ephesians 3:10 receive what the church shows them. The ESV and CSB Study Bibles read angels watching with interest. Wright thinks the rulers are unlikely to welcome the news, and Heiser that the plan was hidden from hostile powers until after the resurrection. Third, where the air of Ephesians 2:2 was. Heiser sets the Israelite picture beside the Greco-Roman one and leaves the choice open. Fourth, whether the four terms of Colossians 1:16 form a ladder of rank. The CSB and ESV Study Bibles see ranks of angels. Heiser finds that no one has traced a coherent order, and Arnold takes every power in Colossians as hostile, since 2:15 defeats them. Fifth, who the rulers of this age are in 1 Corinthians 2:6-8. Heiser and Arnold read spiritual rulers; Keener thinks earthly rulers fit the context better.

Passages where it appears

{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/romans-8-31-39\/","n":"Romans 8:31-39, Angels, rulers and powers","s":"With God on the believers' side, Paul asks who could oppose them, then names hardships and powers, from the sword to angels, rulers, height and depth, and none of them can cut believers off from God's love in Christ.","r":"Romans 8:31-39"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-2-6-16\/","n":"1 Corinthians 2:6-16, The rulers of this age","s":"Paul speaks of a hidden wisdom of God, planned before time began, which the rulers of this age failed to grasp, or they would never have put Jesus to death.","r":"1 Corinthians 2:6-16"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-6-1-11\/","n":"1 Corinthians 6:1-11, Lawsuits before unbelievers","s":"Paul is appalled that believers take one another to court before pagan judges, reminds them that God's people will judge the world and even angels, and asks why they would not rather be wronged.","r":"1 Corinthians 6:1-11"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1corinthians-15-12-34\/","n":"1 Corinthians 15:12-34, If the dead are not raised","s":"Against some who say there is no resurrection of the dead, Paul argues that then Christ was not raised either, calls Christ the firstfruits, and asks why anyone is baptized for the dead or why he fights wild beasts if the dead are not raised.","r":"1 Corinthians 15:12-34"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/2corinthians-4-1-6\/","n":"2 Corinthians 4:1-6, The god of this age","s":"Paul renounces cunning and tampering with God's word; if his gospel is veiled, it is veiled to the perishing, whose minds the god of this age has blinded, while God has made his light shine in believers' hearts.","r":"2 Corinthians 4:1-6"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-1-15-23\/","n":"Ephesians 1:15-23, Far above every name that is invoked","s":"Paul prays that the believers will know the hope, the inheritance and the power God showed when he raised Christ and seated him above every ruler, authority, power and name, in this age and the next.","r":"Ephesians 1:15-23"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-2-1-10\/","n":"Ephesians 2:1-10, The ruler of the kingdom of the air","s":"Paul reminds his readers that they were once dead in sins, following the ruler of the kingdom of the air, until God in his mercy made them alive and seated them with Christ in the heavenly realms, saved by grace.","r":"Ephesians 2:1-10"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-3-1-13\/","n":"Ephesians 3:1-13, The prisoner, the steward and the mystery shown to the powers","s":"Paul, a prisoner for the sake of the Gentiles, breaks off to explain the stewardship of grace given him: the mystery, now revealed, that Gentiles are co-heirs, made known through the church even to the rulers in the heavenly realms.","r":"Ephesians 3:1-13"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-3-14-21\/","n":"Ephesians 3:14-21, Kneeling before the Father of every family","s":"Paul kneels in prayer before the Father of every family, heavenly and earthly, and asks that they be strengthened by the Spirit and grasp the vast dimensions of Christ's love, closing with praise.","r":"Ephesians 3:14-21"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-4-1-16\/","n":"Ephesians 4:1-16, The conqueror goes up and gives gifts","s":"Paul urges unity, one body and one Spirit, then reads Psalm 68 as Christ ascending in victory and handing out gifts: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers, to equip the church to grow up into him.","r":"Ephesians 4:1-16"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/ephesians-6-10-17\/","n":"Ephesians 6:10-17, The armor of God","s":"Paul calls the believers to stand firm in God's armor, because their struggle is not against flesh and blood but against rulers, authorities and spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms.","r":"Ephesians 6:10-17"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/philippians-2-1-11\/","n":"Philippians 2:1-11, The form of a slave, a cross, and every knee","s":"Paul urges humility and concern for others, then sets out Christ, who did not exploit his equality with God but took the form of a slave and died on a cross, and whom God exalted so that every knee will bow.","r":"Philippians 2:1-11"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/colossians-1-15-20\/","n":"Colossians 1:15-20, Firstborn over creation, over thrones and powers","s":"Paul describes the Son as the image of the unseen God and firstborn over all creation, through whom and for whom everything was made, thrones and powers included, and through whose cross God makes peace with all things.","r":"Colossians 1:15-20"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/hebrews-2-5-18\/","n":"Hebrews 2:5-18, The world to come is not for angels","s":"God did not put the world to come under angels. Psalm 8 promised rule to human beings; it is not yet seen, but Jesus, made a little lower than the angels for a while, is crowned with glory, and he shared flesh and blood to break the devil's power and become a merciful and faithful high priest.","r":"Hebrews 2:5-18"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1peter-3-8-22\/","n":"1 Peter 3:8-22, A defense, and the spirits in prison","s":"Peter calls for harmony and for blessing in return for insult, and tells his readers to be ready to make a defense of their hope. Christ suffered once for sins, was put to death in the body and made alive in the Spirit, and went and made proclamation to the spirits in prison who disobeyed in Noah's day; the flood that saved eight people prefigures baptism, and Christ has gone into heaven, where every angelic authority and power is subject to him.","r":"1 Peter 3:8-22"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/1john-5-13-21\/","n":"1 John 5:13-21, The sin that leads to death, the evil one and idols","s":"John writes so that believers may know they have eternal life, and that God hears them. They are to pray for a brother or sister whose sin does not lead to death, though there is a sin that does. Those born of God are kept from the evil one, while the whole world lies under his power; the letter ends with a warning to keep away from idols.","r":"1 John 5:13-21"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/revelation-1-9-20\/","n":"Revelation 1:9-20, Patmos, the Lord's day, lampstands and stars","s":"On the island of Patmos, in the Spirit on the Lord's day, John hears a voice like a trumpet telling him to write to seven churches. He turns and sees one like a son of man among seven golden lampstands, holding seven stars, who holds the keys of death and Hades and explains what the stars and lampstands mean.","r":"Revelation 1:9-20"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/ancient-world-passages\/revelation-12-7-17\/","n":"Revelation 12:7-17, war in heaven and the accuser thrown down","s":"Michael and his angels fight the dragon and throw him out of heaven, and a voice celebrates the fall of the accuser of the brothers, defeated by the Lamb's blood and the witnesses' testimony. On earth the dragon chases the woman, who is given eagle's wings, and when the earth swallows the river he spews after her, he turns to make war on her other children.","r":"Revelation 12:7-17"}

Beings in the Gods of the Bible

{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/gods-of-the-bible\/archai-exousiai-thronoi-kyriotetes\/","n":"Archai, exousiai, thronoi, kyriotetes","s":"Paul's vocabulary for ranks of cosmic powers: rulers, authorities, thrones, dominions.","r":"Romans 8:38"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/gods-of-the-bible\/the-princes-of-persia-and-greece\/","n":"The princes of Persia and Greece","s":"Spirit figures in Daniel who rule nations and can hold up a messenger from God for weeks.","r":"Daniel 10:13"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/gods-of-the-bible\/angels\/","n":"Angels","s":"A word that means messenger and describes a job, not a species of being.","r":"2 Kings 19:35"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/gods-of-the-bible\/the-host-of-heaven\/","n":"The host of heaven","s":"Two things at once: God's heavenly army, and the sun, moon and stars Israel was told not to worship.","r":"1 Kings 22:19"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/gods-of-the-bible\/death-and-hades\/","n":"Death and Hades","s":"Death and the grave, treated in Revelation as figures who ride and get thrown into fire.","r":"1 Corinthians 15:26"}

In the Divine Council Index

{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/divine-council-index\/deuteronomy-32-8-9\/","n":"Deuteronomy 32:8-9","s":"The Most High divided the nations, and the number He divided them by is where the whole argument turns.","r":"Deuteronomy 32:8-9"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/divine-council-index\/daniel-10-13-20-21\/","n":"Daniel 10:13, 20-21","s":"A prince of Persia resists for twenty-one days, a prince of Greece is coming, and Michael fights for Israel.","r":"Daniel 10:13, 20-21"}
{"u":"https:\/\/jayms.com\/bible-study-tools-2\/divine-council-index\/ephesians-6-10-12\/","n":"Ephesians 6:10-12","s":"The struggle is not against flesh and blood but against rulers, authorities, and cosmic powers.","r":"Ephesians 6:10-12"}

Sources

NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on Romans 8:38 and 8:39
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on Romans 8:38 and 8:39
ESV Study Bible, study note on Romans 8:38-39
Michael S. Heiser, The Unseen Realm, ch. 15, Cosmic Geography, ch. 34, Infiltration, and ch. 37, This Means War
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on Ephesians 1:3, 1:21-23, 3:8-11 and 6:12
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on Ephesians 1:21, 2:2, 3:10 and 6:12
ESV Study Bible, study notes on Ephesians 3:10 and 6:12
CSB Study Bible, note on Ephesians 3:10
N. T. Wright, Paul: A Biography, ch. 11, Ephesus II
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on Philippians 2:10-11
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, note on Philippians 2:10
CSB Study Bible, note on Philippians 2:9-11
Michael S. Heiser, Reversing Hermon, Irenaeus
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on Colossians 1:16, 1:20-22 and 2:10
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on Colossians 1:16, 1:20 and 2:10
ESV Study Bible, study note on Colossians 1:16
CSB Study Bible, note on Colossians 1:16
Michael S. Heiser, The Unseen Realm, ch. 37, This Means War, endnote on thronoi
Clinton E. Arnold, Powers of Darkness, ch. 4, Judaism, Angelic Powers over the Nations, ch. 6, What Are the Powers?, The Source of Paul's Vocabulary for the Powers and What Paul Does Not Say, ch. 7, The Attempt to Ruin God's Redemptive Plan (1 Cor 2:6-8), ch. 8, Secure and Protected, and ch. 12, Christ's Final Subjection of the Powers
Clinton E. Arnold, Powers of Darkness, ch. 1, Magic and Divination, A Protective Charm, and ch. 10, The Connection of the False Teaching with the Powers
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, on 1 Corinthians 2:6 and 2:8
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, notes on 1 Corinthians 2:6 and 2:8
Michael S. Heiser, The Unseen Realm, ch. 28, Divine Misdirection

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